Teacher action in context
1.4.2.1
The importance of contextual factors
1.4.2.2 Types of contextual factor
1.4.2.3 How influences combine to affect action
1.4.2.4 A combined model of planned action
1.4.2.5 From behaviour back to beliefs
1.4.2.6 Attitude defined
1.4.2.7 The relative importance of attitudes
1.4.2.8 Perceptions versus 'reality'
1.4.2.9 How reliable are perceptions?
1.4.2.10 Cross-cultural factors
1.4.2.11 Changing perceptions can change behaviour
1.4.2.1
The importance of contextual factors
So far we have considered teachers' planning and decision-making processes
without taking into account the important influence of contextual factors,
such as your classroom, the department and institution that you work in,
and wider society.
Think about a lesson that you have recently taught. Is there anything you would have done differently if any of the following factors had been different?
- Class size
- Room size and layout
- Your students: what they want and expect
- Colleagues' influence
- Departmental requirements / head of unit's influence
- The type and size of institution you work in
- The geographical region you work in
- The country you work in
- Any other factors outside of your control? (Add more of your own)
Having done this thinking exercise, would you say that context plays an important role in determining how you teach? Can you identify any aspects of context that are more influential than others?
1.4.2.2
Types of contextual factor
Look back at the list of contextual factors in the previous section. Divide
them into at least two, preferably three, sets, in whatever way seems
logical to you.
There are a number of reports that give a more central role to the influence of context on teaching, and which categorize contextual factors into different types. For example, Binnie Smith (1996: 199) identifies those 'related to the institution' (eg administrative expectations), 'the setting' (eg classrooms and audiovisual resources) and 'student characteristics'.
Burns (1996: 157-58) also suggests three types of contextual factor, which she describes in terms of interconnecting and interacting 'contextual' levels': the institutional focus, which involves 'the "normalised" or conventionalised ways in which particular organisational ideologies or philosophies (are) interpreted by ... teachers' (ibid:158) at the broadest level; the teachers' 'personal philosophies, thinking, attitudes, beliefs and expectations … about language, learning and learners' (ibid:158) at the second level; and the third, most specific level comprising the thinking and reflection involved in the planning and decisions for a specific lesson.
Did your classification of contextual factors resemble either of these two?
1.4.2.3
How influences combine to affect action
Think about an event during a recent lesson that you have taught, eg when
you corrected a student, or were setting up an activity. At that moment,
what do you think was influencing your behaviour more?
- Your beliefs about what it means to be a good teacher
- Your beliefs about how people learn an additional language
- Contextual factors
- Something else (say what!)
You may find it difficult to decide which of these potential influences was having the strongest effect. Often, our behaviour is the result of several influences acting together.
1.4.2.4
A combined model of planned action
A model that I have found helpful in explaining how different influences
combine is Ajzen's (1988) theory of planned action. Like Pribram's model
(see section 1.2.4.2) there is a three-stage
process in which beliefs (understanding) influence intention
(planning), which in turn results in behaviour (action). The difference
is that the belief stage is seen as incorporating the interaction of three
distinct factors (including contextual factors like those identified by
Burns and Binnie Smith) into a more complete model.
The three 'belief' elements of Ajzen's model are:
- Your attitude towards the behaviour, eg if you believe that small group and pair work is an effective way to facilitate language learning, you will have a positive attitude towards small group and pair work, and will be likely to use it with your classes. This element includes both beliefs about being, or behaving as, a teacher, and about how language learning takes place.
- What you believe other people think of the behaviour, ('subjective norms' in Ajzen's terms), eg students usually make quite a lot of noise when doing pair work; if you believe that colleagues teaching in neighbouring classrooms will object to this noise, or will even think that your students are just 'messing around', you will possibly avoid using pair work with your classes. This element includes all the contextual and social factors to do with other people's opinions: colleagues, managers, students, parents, etc.
- What you believe is possible, practical or do-able ('perceived behavioural control' in Ajzen's terms), eg if you can't move the furniture in your classroom so pair work can be carried out, or if you are worried that you might not be able to keep control of the class, you will possibly avoid using pair work. This element includes all the contextual factors to do with your physical environment - teaching space, equipment, budgets etc, and also your own level of skills and abilities.
1.4.2.5
From behaviour back to beliefs
As we saw in section 1.2.4.2, when we reflect
on our behaviour, or interpret an event, our beliefs are liable to change,
so that when we are confronted with a similar situation in the future
we may plan, and act, differently. The 'feedback loop' created when we
reflect on experience can alter any, or all, of the belief system elements
identified by Ajzen.
The diagram below is a modified version of Ajzen's model showing this feedback loop. If you want to see a short animated PowerPoint slide show (running time about 4 minutes) explaining and illustrating the different elements of the diagram, see the online Slide Show 1, or if you want to manually control the speed at which each frame advances, see the online Slide Show 2.
1.4.2.6
Attitude defined
Attitude is 'the individual's positive or negative evaluation of
performing the particular behaviour of interest' (Ajzen, 1988: 117). The
notion of 'good' or 'bad' is one of the elements of a belief, ie attitude
is the evaluative element of a belief.
1.4.2.7
The relative importance of attitudes
Our perceptions of other people's opinions, or controls on behaviour (physical
context or own abilities) can often have a stronger influence on our behaviour
than our attitudes towards that behaviour. For example, I do not believe
that teaching a class in lockstep (when I control the class so that everyone
proceeds at the same pace through the same activities) is the best way
to facilitate language learning, especially spoken language. I recently
taught an 'open attendance' course in 'communicating in spoken English'
for international students at my university; the fact that attendance
levels approached 250 students made me feel forced into taking a lockstep
approach, in direct opposition to my beliefs.
1.4.2.8
Perceptions versus 'reality'
Most of the time our intentions to act are determined by our perceptions,
or beliefs about, other people's opinions and contextual constraints as
much as real external events. However, there is always the possibility
of an unforeseen event really preventing you from doing what you
thought was possible (eg the power cut that prevents you using the video).
1.4.2.9
How reliable are perceptions?
Sometimes, our perceptions of other people's opinions and control factors
may be highly accurate, but unforeseen events may prevent intended action
from being carried out. At other times, we may perceive constraints where
none exist, and modify our behaviour unnecessarily. (If I had thought
about the problem, I may have been able to find a way to work with my
class of 250 without resorting to lockstep all the time; I have since
successfully tried this.)
The fact that perceptions may be unreliable means that we should be prepared to evaluate our own perceptions from time to time to be confident that we are seeing things as they really are.
1.4.2.10
Cross-cultural factors
In the context of language teaching, which by definition involves
cross-cultural and intercultural issues, I believe that we should pay
especially careful attention to our perceptions of other people's opinions
and contextual controls on behaviour. This is because cultural expectations
can influence perceptions as much as individual attitudes and beliefs.
For example, in strongly collectivist cultures, such as are found in many Asian countries, opinions of others will play an even more decisive role than in Western-style individualist societies (see Hofstede, 1986, for a discussion of cultural types). In Japan, for example, there is a saying, 'the nail that sticks up must be hammered down'; conformity to what is considered to be socially acceptable behaviour is extremely important, and any deviance will meet with strong disapproval. This makes it difficult for most teachers in Japan to try something new. Perhaps even in Britain we are not as free of the influence of others' opinions as we would like to think.
- Did you grow up in a culture different to the one you now live and work in, or have you ever spent a period of time in a culture different to your native culture? If so, try to identify one or two examples of differences between the two cultures regarding the way that cultural expectations might influence perceptions. This could involve the relative importance of other people's opinions, or the extent to which perceptions of external, contextual factors might influence plans and intentions.
1.4.2.11
Changing perceptions can change behaviour
It may be possible for teachers to learn to act more consistently with
their beliefs by changing their perceptions. If they change how they think
about other people's opinions, they may gain the confidence to do it their
way, regardless of the opinions of others, or they might aim to change
the opinions of others. Similarly, they may be able to find ways around
contextual controls on behaviour. Simply by becoming aware that factors
they have always believed to be beyond their control may in fact be (mis)
perceptions can be the first step towards circumventing or removing apparent
barriers to developing their professional practice.
