Exercises and tasks for listening are just as applicable to the testing of reading, so this section will cover both skills. Tasks can basically be divided into five main groups:

• graphic representation (GR);
• open-ended questions (OE);
• multiple-choice exercises (MC);
• true/false statements (TF);
• ordering/matching questions (OM).

We shall briefly consider each of these in turn.

1. Graphic representation is especially common in the early stages of FL learning. It denotes the drawing or recording in some other graphic format of information contained in spoken and written texts. It has the advantage of not requiring students to write in the FL but can sometimes be problematic to mark if a student's drawing is not clear or is not quite accurate.
2. Open-ended questions are simple questions on a text, either in L1 (first language) or the FL, which students answer freely in their own words or by quoting material in the text. Questions may be placed before or after the text is heard or read. Questions are quite easy to formulate but students can simply quote bits from the text in reply, and variable responses (eg very long or very short, very accurate or very inaccurate use of the FL) can make them difficult to mark.
3. Multiple-choice exercises offer students a range of possible answers, thus removing the need for students to write anything substantial. Although easy to mark, these can be difficult to write (see section 14.4.5). Moreover, they are not always ideal for listening tests as they can require students to retain in their heads the various alternatives, while at the same time listening to the text.
4. True/false statements are easier to devise than multiple-choice exercises and they are very easy to mark. They do, however, obviously make it easier for students to the guess answer.
5. In ordering/matching questions, students have to put items in the correct order, link appropriate text elements or ideas with each other, or fill in tables with numbers, letters or symbols relating to the text. They have the advantage of requiring students to listen to or read the text very carefully.

Numerous specific tasks and exercises fall under these five basic headings and the following section and section 14.4.2.1 consider a range of them.